Reviewing my Christian service charity activity Essay

1) Identify the details on your Christian service: Where? When? How? For whom? My Christian service was at the Markham Food Bank near Main Street, Unionville. I volunteered during May 21st, where I was one of the only few people who got up in the early morning in order to take the initiative to serve the community as well as Christ. By packaging and organizing food for the poor, we were serving the less fortunate people of Markham, who visit the food bank as a means of obtaining food. 2) Some of the Ontario Catholic School Graduate Expectations that I examined in my grade ten year were: – Recognizing there is more grace in our world than sin and that hope is essential in facing all challenges – Thinking reflectively and creatively to evaluate situations and solve problems – Setting appropriate goals and priorities in school, work and personal life – Thinking critically about the meaning and purpose of work One specific expectation that related directly with my service work this semester was relating to family members in a loving, compassionate and respectful manner. I gave the same type of effort and care into the poor people who needed my help, essentially making them a part of my â€Å"extended family.† I tried demonstrating compassion and love towards them through my hard put effort in organizing, packaging, and sorting an assortment of different food for them. I also contributed to the common good by helping these poor people. In modern society, most people would bypass on the less fortunate people of our communities without offering any aid. These types of inconsiderate people are not supporting the common good of our world. By ignoring and dishonouring God’s precious creations, we are directly going against God himself. Thereby, my actions in helping these poor people are an act to expand and establish common good in our community. THINKING 3) The Golden Rule, â€Å"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you† is a theme that is demonstrated in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. In two paragraphs, answer the following questions as they pertain to the Christian Service work that you have completed during this semester. Analyse how your Christian service: a) Promotes human dignity My Christian service promotes human dignity because I am restoring pride and hope in the hearts and minds of the poor by helping them carry out a normal, everyday life. The less fortunate suffer everyday due to their lack of money, homes, and as well as human essentials. They are sometimes abused verbally and physically by those that think they are â€Å"superior† than them, which causes them to lose their righteous human dignity. By providing these people would proper food and water, I restore a small portion of their dignity as a human being. They should not feel low or bad to have to come to us for help, because that is what we do for each other. In this essence, I am able to help promote human dignity through my services at the Markham Food Bank. b) Challenges any personal religious and/or social biases. Often people in society do not associate with other people or help them out because they think that they are not on the same â€Å"social status† as the other. These social biases are particularly true with homeless people who seem to be suffering more and more simply due to their social status. These judgemental remarks make it even more difficult for these poor people to obtain food and get jobs. Therefore, through my Christian service, I am challenging the boundary of any social biases by offering free food packaged and boxed for the poor and suffering in our communities. APPLICATION 4) In a paragraph, demonstrate how your Christian service fulfills some aspect(s) of the Corporal works of Mercy. My Christian service perfectly fulfills the first Corporal Works of Mercy that is to feed the hungry. By going to the food bank, and packaging/organizing a variety of food in boxes for the poor people, I am helping to â€Å"feed† the hungry people of our society. All these less fortunate people wait in line everyday in order to be fed, and I was just fortunate enough to have the opportunity to be able to help serve the poor by providing their food. Therefore, my Christian service successfully fulfills this aspect of the Corporal Works of Mercy. 5) In a paragraph, evaluate the effect your Christian service has had on your moral and your faith development. This Christian service has indeed had a significant impact on my moral and faith development this semester. By experiencing the difficulty of getting up so early in the morning and going through traffic in order to arrive to the food bank, I realized the level of dedication and love these people must have to come out there every day to help less fortunate civilians. Furthermore, I learned that I should never look down on someone simply because they are not as blessed us, rather I should be more compassionate and understanding of these people. Not only that, but the simple fact that there is such an organization out there, such as the Markham Food Bank, that serves free boxes of food for the poor and less fortunate, makes me truly believe that God exists and he only wants good in our world.

The Skills Dilemma Skills Under-Utilisation and Low-Wage Work

The Skills Dilemma Skills Under-Utilisation and Low-Wage Work A Bottom Ten Million Research Paper Jonny Wright and Paul Sissons January 2012 Contents 1. Introduction 2. Skills under-utilisation in the UK and low-wage work – the scale of the problem 3. The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisation 4. An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality 5. Conclusions and policy recommendations Appendix I: Under-use of skills in The Work Foundation’s Knowledge Workers Survey 8 11 17 27 32 List of Boxes, Figures and Tables Box 1: Approaches to skills utilisation Box 2: Summary findings: Drivers of skills under-utilisation in low-wage sectors Figure 1: Percentage of employees over and under-skilled, by industry Figure 2: Percentage of employees over and under-skilled, by occupation Figure 3: Employment by occupation in the retail sector and the whole economy Figure 4: Employment by occupation in hospitali ty and the whole economy Table 1: Making bad jobs good 5 23 10 10 18 20 16Acknowledgements This paper is published as part of our Bottom Ten Million research programme. We would like to thank our sponsors – Barrow Cadbury Trust, Private Equity Foundation, The Tudor Trust and Working Links. We would also like to thank the following expert interviewees: Prof. Ewart Keep, Thomas Baum, Dr. Odul Bozkurt, Michelle Irving, Anne Murphy, Aoife Ni Luanaigh, David Fuhr, Bob Butcher, Mike Darby Prof. Irena Grugulis, Katerina Rudiger, Linda McLeod, Marc Robertson, Kate Tetley, Prof. Dennis Nickson.Jonathan Wright has left The Work Foundation, the report does not represent the view of his new employers. This paper is the second in a series of publications as part of The Work Foundation’s new research programme, The Bottom Ten Million, which focuses on the employment prospects of Britain’s low earners between now and 2020 and seeks to identify the priority measures that need t o be taken if they are to share in the sources of growth and prosperity over the next decade. There are ten million people in Britain who currently have annual incomes of less than ? 5,000. The Bottom Ten Million programme is sponsored by Working Links, The Tudor Trust, the Barrow Cadbury Trust and the Private Equity Foundation. 2 The Skills Dilemma 1. Introduction There is a skills dilemma in the UK. Successive governments have focussed on supply-side measures to tackle the UK’s skills problems and to improve the nation’s international economic competitiveness. However, despite increased investment in skills and educational attainment, labour productivity in the UK lags behind other comparator countries. Lord Leitch’s review of skills found that the UK’s relatively poor skills base only accounts for around one fifth of the productivity gap with countries such as Germany and France;2 with the rest mostly attributable to our poor record of ‘investing in physical capital, R&D and infrastructure’, but commentators have also identified the importance of work organisation and job design in boosting productivity. 3 This paper challenges the implicit assumption in much skills policy making that the skills problem lies solely on the supply-side.Supply-side interventions can certainly boost competitiveness and also have an important influence on individual labour market outcomes; however in isolation they have not been sufficient to close the productivity gap with competitor nations. 4 We therefore argue that greater attention needs to be paid to the limited demand for skills. This argument is not new, Wilson and Hogarth advocated this view in the early 2000s,5 however acknowledgement of the issue in policy circles, and progress towards better demand-side policies, has been painfully slow. The UK faces significant skills challenges.The suggestion of demand-side concerns should not be taken as implying that there are not further improvements that can be made in the supply of skills. This is particularly true for the lowest skilled. Whereas the UK ranks 12th for high level skills in the OECD, it is further behind for intermediate level skills (18th) and for low skills (17th). 6 The supply of skills has important implications for the ability of employers to recruit a suitably qualified and skilled workforce. Last year’s national employer skills survey found that 19 per cent of employers were suffering from a skills gap. It is therefore clear that on-going efforts to improve the supply of skills remain important. 8 However, there is a growing body of research arguing that the skills problem is related not only to skills supply but also to poor skills utilisation. For this study we adopt a definition of skills utilisation that captures both the individual, firm level and potential national effects, and which was developed by the Scottish Funding Council (SFC) who have recently funded a programme of 12 pr ojects which test different approaches to skills utilisation.CFE (2008) Skills Utilisation Literature Review, Scottish Government Social Research Leitch Review of Skills (2005) Skills in the UK: The long-term challenge HM Treasury 3 Keep, E. , Mayhew, K. and Payne, J. (2006) ‘From Skills Revolution to Productivity Miracle – not as easy as it sounds? ’ Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22:4. 4 CFE (2008) Skills Utilisation Literature Review, Scottish Government Social Research 5 Wilson, R. and Hogarth, T. (Eds. (2003) Tackling the Low Skills Equilibrium: A Review of Issues and Some New Evidence Department of Trade and Industry 6 UKCES (2010) Ambition 2020 7 UKCES (2009) National Employer Skills Survey 8 Lawton, K. (2009) Nice Work If You Can Get It IPPR 1 2 The Skills Dilemma 3 Introduction Effective skills utilisation is about: †¢ Confident, motivated and relevantly skilled individuals who are aware of the skills they posses and know how to best use them in the workplace. Working in: †¢ Workplaces that provide meaningful and appropriate encouragement, opportunity and support for employees to use their skills effectively.In order to: †¢ Increase performance and productivity, improve job satisfaction and employee well-being, and stimulate investment, enterprise and innovation. Previous research by The Work Foundation has found that between 35 and 45 per cent of employees feel their skills are under-utilised. 9 Other employee surveys such as the UK Skills Survey have reported similar results. Skills under-utilisation is also more prevalent in low-wage sectors. Employer demand for skills is lowest in sectors such as retail and hospitality – those sectors which also employ the most low-wage workers.Skills utilisation matters for the UK economy, for employers and for employees. Firstly, although the UK workforce has become increasingly skilled in recent years, the productivity gap with comparator countries remains. There is a growing body of research that argues that a demand-side approach is needed to help close the gap. Secondly, better skills utilisation matters for employers because it can result in better motivated, confident and productive employees and reduce staff turnover. And lastly, better skills utilisation can make work more satisfying for employees, and improve their prospects for progression. 0 Therefore, failure to understand and address the skills problem appropriately will not only hinder the UK’s long term growth potential but may also dampen social mobility. 9 10 Brinkley, I. et al. (2009) Knowledge Workers and Work The Work Foundation CFE (2008) Skills Utilisation Literature Review Scottish Government Social Research The Skills Dilemma 4 Introduction Box 1: Approaches to skills utilisation One problem inherent in the skills utilisation agenda is that the term ‘skills utilisation’ is subject to a relatively wide variety of definitions.These definitional problems are also exhibited in practical skills utilisation policies, with the early evaluation evidence from Scotland suggesting a number of pilot projects leaned quite heavily towards the supply-side of skills. There are also a number of different approaches to skills utilisation – these have been grouped as market-driven, state-driven and holistic (see table below). These approaches differ in their focus, main drivers and models of delivery as well as in their intended outcomes.The following table provides an overview of some of these differences regarding both their implementation and impact: Implementation of approaches Market driven Focus Driver Model Organisation Business performance HPW Learning transfer Leadership and management Employee trust State driven Organisation National productivity National strategy Workplace projects Buy-in – employers, employees Holistic Industry/National National prosperity National strategy (combining acquisition and utilisation) Stakehold er engagement Sector wide projects FundEnablers Impact of approaches Market driven Take up Outcomes – economic Low Profit Sales Productivity Job satisfaction Staff retention/motivation Work intensification Employee buy-in State driven No evidence Productivity Holistic No evidence Use of resources Improved innovation Improved collaboration Outcomes – social Well-being Working conditions Equality and diversity Buy-in Dissemination Limitations Broad approach MeasurementS (Source: CFE, 2008)Generally speaking skills utilisation is presented as a positive concept, although some commentators viewing the concept in its broadest sense also argue that management practices aimed at deliberately limiting the use of employees skills can also be examples of skills utilisation. The challenges faced by low-wage workers – including the under-utilisation of skills in low-skill low-wage sectors – are driven by multiple factors. There are forces both inside and outside of t he workplace that shape under-utilisation outcomes. The skills ecosystem captures the context in which skills are developed and used.It includes the business setting, the institutional and policy frameworks (skill and The Skills Dilemma 5 Introduction non-skill based), the modes of engaging and contracting labour (such as labour hire arrangements) and the structure of jobs (for example job design and work organisation). 11 Initiatives to improve skills utilisation have been undertaken in Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and also Scotland – where the Skills Strategy makes a commitment to ‘improving the skills and employability of individuals and creating high skill, high productivity, healthy workplaces where this talent can be best used’. 2 But there is no established policy response in England. Changes in the structure of the labour market in recent years have placed new pressures on lowwage workers. The labour market has become increasingly polarised into l ow-wage, low-skill jobs and high-wage, high skills jobs; and the recession has accelerated this structural change. 13 We also know that progression from low-wage work is often quite poor. Furthermore it is forecast that there will not be significantly fewer low-wage jobs in the UK by 2020, yet there will be relatively few adults in the labour market with no qualifications. 4 Brockmann, Clarke and Winch have also identified there is a cultural difference between how work is conceived in the UK and overseas. 15 In comparator countries progression is an integral aspect of any occupation, and the floor of minimum training required is often much higher. This incentivises employers to maximise the productivity of its workforce through job design – to cover training costs. Conversely, the UK jobs market is increasingly characterised by a long ‘tail’ of low-wage work,16 with limited opportunities to progress.A recent review of international skills policy has identified t hree main approaches to tackling skills under-utilisation – market driven, state driven, and holistic. 17 In countries such as Finland and Ireland the state has played a leading role; establishing a policy framework to encourage organisations to maximise skills utilisation. Other countries have taken a more holistic approach involving employers, employees, learning providers and the state †¦ to achieve industry wide and national impacts on productivity. 18 The Skills Ecosystem Project in Australia is an example of a holistic approach.High performance working, which has been the central plank of the English response to employer skills use, is a market driven approach which includes activities in the areas of human resource management, Buchanan, J. et al. (2010), Skills demand and utilisation: An international review of approaches to measurement and policy development OECD Local Economic and Employment Development Working Papers, 2010 12 Skills for Scotland at http://www. scotland. gov. uk/Resource/Doc/326739/0105315. pdf accessed on 22 November 2010 p. 7 13 Sissons, P. 2011) The Hourglass and the Escalator: Labour market change and mobility The Work Foundation 14 Lawton, K. (2009) Nice Work If You Can Get It IPPR 15 Brockmann, M. , Clarke, L. and Winch, C. (2011) European Skills and Qualifications: Towards a European Labour Market Routledge 16 Clayton, N. and Brinkley, I. (2011) Welfare to What? Prospects and challenges for employment recovery, The Work Foundation 17 CFE (2008) Skills Utilisation Literature Review, Scottish Government Social Research 18 CFE (2008) Skills Utilisation Literature Review, Scottish Government Social Research 11 The Skills Dilemma Introduction work organisation, management and leadership, and organisational development. Although, less than a third of organisations in the UK take a HPW approach (2008 Employer skills survey). 19 This paper In this paper we analyse skill utilisation in two sectors in the UK economy – hospitality and retail – which employ a relatively high proportion of the low-earners and which exhibit high levels of skills underutilisation compared to other sectors. We focus on the following questions: 1.What are the main drivers of skills under-utilisation in low-wage sectors in the UK? 2. What can and should be done to address skills under-utilisation in low-wage sectors in the UK? The paper also draws on examples of skills utilisation best practice in comparator countries before developing a set of policy recommendations for UK policy makers and employers. The research method involved both a review of the existing literature on skills utilisation and how this applies to the case study examples as well as undertaking 15 expert interviews.These interviews covered a range of actors including academic experts, Unions, Sector Skills Councils, employer and trade bodies, and central government. The Skills Dilemma builds on our existing Bottom Ten Million evidence base. The p aper aims to highlight the role that improved utilisation can play in generating better work outcomes for the Bottom Ten Million and to raise awareness of skills under-utilisation in England. Better skills utilisation also has the potential to generate higher productivity levels for businesses and to bring about benefits for the wider economy.The paper is structured as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ Section 2 outlines the scale of the problem in the UK; Section 3 examines the barriers to improving low-wage work and the role of skills utilisation; Section 4 explores the drivers of skills under-utilisation and barriers to better skills utilisation in two low-wage industrial sectors: Hospitality; Retail; †¢ ? ? Section 5 summarises our findings and sets out a series of policy recommendations. 19 UKCES, High Performance Working The Skills Dilemma 7 2. Skills under-utilisation in the UK and low-wage work – the scale of the problemWhile there is growing evidence that under-u tilisation of skills by employers is an issue, there is no established definition of skills utilisation. This makes measuring the issue problematic. In part this reflects the insufficient understanding or awareness of the problem in government and amongst employers (especially in England), when compared to supply-side challenges such as skills shortages and skills gaps. As such, policy makers have not sufficiently recognised the importance of demand-side measures such as improved work organisation practices and job design in delivering skills improvements.This is despite there being take-up of this policy agenda in other countries, including Scotland. Progress on skills has traditionally been measured using qualifications across the workforce; but this ‘does not take account of the skills which people acquire through non formal; and informal learning both at work and within their wider lives’. 20 Qualifications are only one measure of skills in the workforce – a more comprehensive understanding takes into consideration the three logics of skill:21 †¢ Behavioural: ‘the personal qualities of the worker to deal with interpersonal relationships’; Cognitive: ‘level and kind of education and training undertaken by the population to help it understand and act in the world’; †¢ Technical: ‘the capacity to undertake particular set tasks. ’ Any attempt to measure skills under-utilisation must therefore take into account this holistic understanding of skills; different types of skills are utilised and under-utilised in different workplaces.The scale of the problem in the UK There is a significant body of evidence demonstrating that the UK lags behind comparator countries in terms of the quality of skills in the workplace. Whereas the UK ranks 12th for high level skills in the OECD, it is further behind for intermediate level skills (18th) and for low level skills (17th). 22 This has resulted in some ski lls gaps and skills shortages for UK employers, with the 2009 National Employer Skills Survey finding that 19 per cent of establishments reported a skills gap among their employees. 3 However there is a growing body of research (both from this country and abroad) that argues that the skills problem is related not only to skills supply but also to weak demand for skills and poor skills utilisation. The term Low Skills Equilibrium was coined in 1988 by Finegold and Soskice (and subsequently developed by academics such as Ewart Keep) to describe what they saw as a ‘systems failure’ in the British economy; an economy characterised by low-wages and with a relatively high proportion of low specification companies in which demand for high level skills is relatively low. 0 Payne, J. (2010) Skills Utilisation: towards a measurement and evaluation framework SKOPE Research Paper No. 93 21 Buchanan et al. (2010), Skills demand and utilisation: An international review of approaches to measurement and policy development’, OECD Local Economic and Employment Development Working Papers, 2010 22 UKCES (2010) Ambition 2020 23 Wright, J. , Clayton, N. and Brinkley, I. (2010) Employability and Skills in the UK, The Work Foundation 8 The Skills Dilemma Skills under-utilisation in the UK and low-wage work – the scale of the problemFelstead et al. have pointed out that ‘whilst a relative balance of skills demand and supply exists for those jobs requiring high level qualifications, an aggregate imbalance exists for those requiring intermediate and no qualifications’. 24 In a study of Skills at Work between 1986 and 2006 it has been shown that the number of people in the workforce with no qualifications has fallen far faster than the number of jobs requiring no qualifications (the number of people with no qualifications fell by 5. million between 1986 and 2006; whilst the number of jobs requiring no qualifications for entry fell by 1. 2 million). The result has been a growing mismatch between individuals with no qualifications and jobs which require no qualification requirements. 25 The most useful data on skills under-utilisation however comes from employees themselves. 26 A body of evidence suggests that skills under-utilisation affects a higher proportion of the UK workforce than does skills gaps or skills shortages.A study by The Work Foundation in 2009 found that between 35 and 45 per cent of employees felt that their skills were under-utilised. 27 Furthermore, skills under-utilisation is more prevalent amongst people in jobs requiring some or little knowledge content; 36 per cent of knowledge workers reported that their jobs under-utilised their skills compared to 44 per cent in jobs with some or little knowledge content.Moreover, the UK Skills Survey found that the proportion of employees reporting that they are ‘over skilled’ is highest in the low-skill/low-pay sectors and occupations; with over 55 per cent of people working in the hotels and catering industry reporting being over skilled compared to approximately 20 per cent in finance; over 60 per cent of workers in elementary level jobs reported being over skilled compared to less than 20 per cent in managerial positions (see Figures 1 and 2 below). The UK skills survey also suggests that the skills under-utilisation problem is getting worse over time.The percentage of employees reporting high levels of discretion at work – jobs which are likely ‘to make better use of employees’ judgement and skill’ – dropped from 57 per cent in 1992 to 43 per cent in 2001, and remained at this level in 2006. 28 Despite this, there is limited public awareness of the issue in England and skills utilisation does not feature heavily in skills policy. But there are examples elsewhere of how skills utilisation policies can be effectively built, and can benefit both employees and firms.England is relatively isolated in having largely ignored the importance of work organisation and job design in delivering skills improvements. In a number of other European countries, government workplace organisation initiatives have been implemented to improve job quality and enhance productivity. 29 Countries which have pursued these policies include the Nordic states, Germany and Ireland. 30 Buchanan et a. l (2010), Skills demand and utilisation: An international review of approaches to measurement and policy development’, OECD Local Economic and Employment Development Working Papers, 2010 25 Felstead, A. Gallie, D. , Green, F. and Zhou, Y. (2007) Skills at Work, 1986-2006 26 Payne, J. (2010) Skills Utilisation: towards a measurement and evaluation framework SKOPE Research Paper No. 93 27 Brinkley et al. (2009) Knowledge Workers and Work, The Work Foundation 28 Felstead, A. , Gallie, D. , Green, F. and Zhou, Y. (2007) Skills at Work, 1986-2006 29 Keep, E. , Mayhew, K. and Payne, J. 2006. ‘From Sk ills Revolution to Productivity Miracle – Not As Easy As It Looks? ’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy 22:4, pp539-559 30 Ibid 24 The Skills Dilemma 9Skills under-utilisation in the UK and low-wage work – the scale of the problem Figure 1: Percentage of employees over and under-skilled, by industry 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Over-skilled Under-skilled % na nc Ed e uc at i El o n ec tri ca l He Co al th ns tru Pu ct io bl n ic ad m in Ag . ric M in ul in tu g re /fi sh Re in g O al th es er ta co te m m M an uni ty uf W ac ho tu r le sa ing Tr le/r e an sp tail or Ho ta te tio ls/ n ca te rin g Fi Source: 2001 UK Skills Survey Figure 2: Percentage of employees over and under-skilled, by occupation 70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 Over-skilled Under-skilled n ag Pr er of s es sio As na s. ls Pr of . /t ec h. Se cr et ar Sk ia ille l d Pe tra rs de on s al se rv ice s Sa le s es s an to Pl Source: 2001 UK Skills Survey 10 El em en ta ry M pe ra tiv oc c’ Al l Al l The Skil ls Dilemma 3. The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisation Low-wage workers face a number of distinctive challenges in the labour market. For example low-paid/ low-skilled workplaces tend to have few development and progression opportunities, worse HR practices and higher staff turnover. 1 In this chapter we discuss the wider challenges faced in improving lowwage work, and we consider the role which skills utilisation policies can play in this. Skills utilisation is certainty not a ‘magic bullet’ to resolve all the challenges faced in improving the lot of low-wage workers. Improving skills utilisation is potentially a useful strategy in generating better work outcomes; however to fundamentally address the issues faced by low-wage earners, it must be part of a broader suite of measures. There are a number of primary drivers which serve to make things challenging for low-wage workers, these include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The s tructure of the labour market and the types of jobs that are growing and declining; The poor conception of work in low-wage sectors; The corporate strategies adopted by firms in low-wage paying industries which often compete on cost rather than quality; The forms of work organisation and management techniques adopted by low-wage employers; The weak career and wage progression that is often experienced by people at the bottom of the labour market; Wage inequality and the level of the National Minimum Wage.The primary focus of research in this paper is on the third and fourth bullets, which are concerned with employer demand for skills and how well employers utilise the skills of their workforce. However, in this chapter we also discuss the issues raised by the other bullets, which skills utilisation policies would not directly address.The changing structure of the UK labour market During the past few decades the UK economy has undergone a structural change, with the economy increasin gly based on knowledge, rather than routine production, and with new jobs created in large numbers in high-skill/high-wage professional and managerial occupations. However this growth in jobs at the top is not the entire story.Evidence shows that over the last 25 years the labour market has become increasingly hollowed-out, as middle wage/middle skill jobs have been lost in significant numbers; and this trend accelerated noticeably during the recent recession. 32 There is a growing body of evidence which suggests that labour markets in a number of developed countries are becoming increasingly polarised into ‘lovely’ and ‘lousy’ jobs. 33 There are several explanations for this trend: Newton, B. , Miller, L. , Bates, P. , Page, R. nd Akroyd, K. (2006) Learning Through Work: Literacy, language, numeracy and IT skills development in low-paid, low-skilled workplaces Institute for Employment Studies: Report 433 32 Sissons, P. (2011) The Hourglass and the Escalato r: Labour market change and mobility The Work Foundation 33 Goos, M. and Manning, A. (2003) Lousy and lovely jobs: the rising polarization of work in Britain CEP Working Paper 31 The Skills Dilemma 11 The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisation †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢Technological change and the automation of routine jobs;34 Globalisation and off-shoring of semi-skilled production jobs has reduced demand for some groups of workers;35 Growth in high-skill occupations can in itself increase the demand for lower level jobs, particularly in private personal services;36 Other socio-demographic trends, for example those associated with increasing female participation in the labour market and the aging population, have also increased the demand for some personal service occupations. 37One implication of a more polarised job market is that it can have direct implications for employment and earnings mobility, as individuals can become trapped in poor qual ity, low-paid work. More generally, the labour market trends clearly show there remains significant numbers of jobs which have low qualifications requirements, and also have relatively low utilisation of skills. These jobs appear to be an enduring feature of the UK labour market, and it is therefore pertinent to explore what can be done to ameliorate the effects for individuals within these jobs.Corporate strategy and the organisation of low-wage work The central barrier to improving skills utilisation is employer demand for skills. This demand tends to be relatively weak in a number of sectors as a result of firms corporate strategies and their models of work organisation. Policy makers work under the assumption that skill acquisition is a good thing, however increased skills need to be effectively utilised within firms, and this is often not the case. 8 Therefore demand-side strategies are fundamental in order to address skills utilisation, as Keep argues:39 instead of assuming th at the key to the desired ‘skills revolution’ is the supply of more skills, concentrate on stimulating demand for higher levels of skill, through seeking to upgrade product market strategies, enhance product and service quality and specification, and re-design jobs and work organisation so as to minimise dead end, low-skill jobs and maximise the opportunities for the entire workforce to both acquire and utilise higher levels of learning and skill. Goos, M. , Manning, A. nd Salomons, A. (2010) Explaining job polarization in Europe: The roles of technology, globalization and institutions CEP Discussion Paper No. 1026; Goos, M. and Manning, A. (2003) Lousy and lovely jobs: the rising polarization of work in Britain CEP Working Paper; Autor, D. , Levy, F. and Murnane, R. (2003) ‘The skill-content of recent technological change: An empirical investigation’ Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol 188, pp1279-1333; Autor, D. , Katz, L. and Kearney, M. (2006) ‘Me asuring and interpreting trends in economic inequality’ AEA Papers and Proceedings 96:2; Autor, D. and Dorn, D. 2009) Inequality and specialization: The growth of lowskill service jobs in the United States IZA Discussion Paper No. 4290 35 OECD (2011) Growing income inequality in OECD countries: What drives it and how can policy tackle it? OECD, Paris 36 CEDEFOP (2011) Labour market polarization and elementary occupations in Europe: Blip or long-term trend? CEDEFOP Research Paper No. 9 37 Ibid 38 Keep, E. (2000) Learning organisation, lifelong learning and the mystery of the vanishing employers SKOPE Research Paper Number 8 39 Ibid 34 12 The Skills Dilemma The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisationKeep, Mayhew and Payne also make the case that the public policy focus and expenditure on the skills supply-side alone is likely to have only a muted impact if similar attention is not focused on employer demand for skills:40 while there are numerous exp ensive public programmes aimed at enhancing the skills of the future and existing workforce, there is no parallel effort aimed at work organization and job redesign. The central cause of low employer demand for skills often relates to employers’ product market strategies, and this in turn often influences their method of work organisation.Low-paid employees are more likely to be found in firms which compete on cost rather than quality; and they are particularly over represented in the retail sector and in smaller firms. 41 A low-cost product market strategy has particular implications for the utilisation of skills, with many employers with low-cost strategies viewing their workforces as ‘an easily substitutable factor of production, or as a cost to be minimised, rather than as assets and sources of competitive advantage in their own right’. 2 This strategy informs the organisation of work and job design adopted by many low-wage employers; with low-skill jobs ofte n organised using Taylorist forms of job design which give workers little task autonomy, discretion or flexibility. 43 This is in sharp contrast to high-end knowledge workers who often have considerable autonomy and flexibility over their work. More generally, cost pressures on employers can also result in relying more on contingent labour with the increasing use of temporary workers. 44 Often employers producing consumption goods are ‘not acting irrationally’ by following standardised, low cost approaches.Keep estimates that only 30 per cent of the population have an income high enough to support purchasing ‘high value added, customised goods and services on a regular basis’. 45 However the low-road strategies adopted can become a ‘vicious cycle’: Products are poor because the workforce skills to produce better ones are often lacking, and skills are poor because existing product market strategies do not demand high levels of skill and because work has been organised, and jobs are designed to require low levels of skill and discretion.Low wages can also result in a further reinforcing factor, limiting consumer demand for more highly specified products and services. 46 Keep, E. , Mayhew, K. and Payne, J. 2006. ‘From Skills Revolution to Productivity Miracle – Not As Easy As It Looks? ’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy 22:4 pp539-559 41 Newton, B. , Miller, L. , Bates, P. , Page, R. and Akroyd, K. (2006) Learning Through Work: Literacy, language, numeracy and IT skills development in low-paid, low-skilled workplaces Institute for Employment Studies: Report 433 42 Keep, E. 2009; page 5) Labour market structures and trends, the future of work and the implications for initial E&T Beyond Current Horizons Paper 43 Newton, B. , Miller, L. , Bates, P. , Page, R. and Akroyd, K. (2006) Learning Through Work: Literacy, language, numeracy and IT skills development in low-paid, low-skilled workplaces Institute for Employment Studies: Report 433; Keep E (2000) Learning organisation, lifelong learning and the mystery of the vanishing employers SKOPE Research Paper Number 8 44 Metcalf, H. and Dhudwar, A. (2010) Employers’ role in the low-pay/no-pay cycle Joseph Rowntree Foundation 45 Keep, E. 2000) Learning organisation, lifelong learning and the mystery of the vanishing employers SKOPE Research Paper Number 8 46 Wilson, R. and Hogarth, T. (Eds. ) (2003) Tackling the Low Skills Equilibrium: a review of issues and some new evidence, DTI 40 The Skills Dilemma 13 The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisation These forms of corporate strategies are also influenced by the particular variant of Anglo-Saxon capitalism and its focus on short-term results. 47 There is therefore an enormous challenge in producing the type of demand-side improvement which is required to better utilise individuals’ skills.It should be stressed that the product market strategy is not the only influencing factor. Low-wage/ low-skilled service sector jobs are also a product of the institutional environment. Gray highlights the lack of unionisation in many low-wage service sector occupations as being a key determinant of them being ‘bad jobs’, pointing to the fact that unionisation vastly improved the pay, terms and conditions for manufacturing jobs which (prior to unionisation) were often ‘casual, ill-paid, with appalling working conditions’. 8 The product market strategy therefore sits within a wider skills ecosystem which determines skills use, the skills ecosystem includes factors both internal and external to firms. The OECD defines elements of a skills ecosystem as:49 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Business settings (eg enterprise design, networks financial system); Institutional and policy frameworks (skill and non-skill based); Modes of engaging labour (eg standard contracts, labour hire arrangements); Structure of jobs (e g job design, work organisation); and, Level and types of skill formation (eg apprenticeship arrangements, informal on-the-job).Career progression from low-wage work One of the greatest challenges for low-wage workers is the lack of career progression or earnings mobility. 50 However, a number of interventions have been shown to be effective in boosting career progression. 51 In the US in particular there is a growing literature on adopting career ladders as a boost to earnings progression within employers or individual sectors; although it should be noted that there are some questions surrounding the efficacy of this approach in some employment sectors – notably some parts of the service sector.Workers can also be helped to progress through supporting policies which enhance their ability to move between employers, for example by supporting lifelong learning and through the provision of effective careers advice. 47 Keep, E. (2000) Learning organisation, lifelong learning and the mystery of the vanishing employers SKOPE Research Paper Number 8 48 Gray, M. (2004) ‘The social construction of the service sector: institutional structures and labour market outcomes’ in Geoforum 35, pp23-34 Sissons, P. 2011) The Hourglass and the Escalator: Labour market change and mobility The Work Foundation For a summary see Sissons, P. (2011) The Hourglass and the Escalator: Labour market change and mobility The Work Foundation 50 51 49 OECD (May 2010) Skills demand and utilisation: an international review of approaches to measurement and policy development 14 The Skills Dilemma The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisation Wage inequality and the minimum wage During the last three decades the labour market has become increasingly unequal and wage inequality has grown sharply.Wage inequalities increased very dramatically in the 1980s, as both upper-tail and lower-tail wage inequality grew. 52 This trend continued, albeit at a slower rate, during the 1990s. In the 2000s there was a slightly different pattern as lower-tail wage inequality declined somewhat, while uppertail inequality continued to grow. 53 Inequality considerations aside, there is an argument that the single most effective intervention to increase skills utilisation might be to raise the National Minimum Wage.Edwards, Sengupta and Tsai argue that the availability of relatively cheap labour undermines the incentive for employers to pursue a high-road high-value added path and that increasing the National Minimum Wage would be a key means to encourage employers to move off a low-skills path. 54 Again there are examples from other countries on which we can draw, where there exists more widespread use of licence to practice regulation in the labour market which is often ‘reinforced’ by wage systems that more generously reward lower level occupational employment. 5 Good and bad work The preceding sections have highlighted the number of fac tors which make it challenging for low earners. As such better skills utilisation policies are required as part of the broader challenge of improving lowwage work. There is an emerging body of literature, particularly from Canada and the US, about what can be done to ‘upgrade’ low-wage service sector work. Part of this upgrading is about improving wages and part is about improving conditions.It is argued that low-wage service jobs are the ‘last frontier of inefficiency’ and it is advocated that more service sector firms take the ‘high-road’ by investing in workers skills to enable them to perform at a higher standard. 56 Other work in the US also charts a route map to better jobs. Paul Osterman in his body of work on ‘making bad jobs good’ provides a useful framework for how we might approach these wider issues. Osterman concentrates on both improving existing bad jobs and encouraging policy to support the formation of new good job s.Table 1 provides his conceptualisation of the needs, as well as the policy levers needed, to improve work. These are both standard setting, for example through national and local Upper-tail wage inequality is the difference between earners at the 90th percentile and those at the median; lowertail wage inequality is the difference between earners at the median and those at the 10th percentile of the earnings distribution 53 See Kasparova, D. , Wyatt, N. , Mills, T. and Roberts, S. (2010) Pay: Who were the winners and losers of the New Labour era?The Work Foundation 54 Edwards, P. , Sengupta, S. and Tsia, C-J. (2007) Managing work in the low-skill equilibrium: A study of UK food manufacturing SKOPE Research Paper Number 72 55 Keep, E. (2009) Labour market structures and trends, the future of work and the implications for initial E&T Beyond Current Horizons Paper 56 For a brief summary see Florida, R. (2010) America needs to make its bad jobs better (http://www. creativeclass. com/rf cgdb/articles/America%20needs%20to%20make%20its%20bad%20jobs%20better. pdf) 52 The Skills Dilemma 15The challenge of improving low-wage work: the role of skills utilisation regulation; and, programmatic or technical assistance based which support sector or firm specific good practice. 57 Table 1: Making bad jobs good Standard setting Make bad jobs good Minimum wage Living wages Unionisation Community Benefit Agreements Managed tax incentives Programmatic Career ladders Intermediaries Sectoral programmes Extension services Sectoral programmes Consortia or partnerships under business or union auspices Source: Osterman58 Create more good jobs58Findings In this chapter we have explored some broader labour market issues in order to place skills utilisation within a framework of broader changes required to improve the lot of the Bottom Ten Million. The aim has been to show how and where skills utilisation policies have the potential to have a beneficial impact for low-wage workers, but al so to show they are not a ‘magic bullet’. To systematically improve the position of low-wage workers, skills utilisation needs to be part of a broader suite of policies which also address opportunities for progression and wage increases.Community Benefit Agreements essentially involve local government agreeing elements of job quality with a developer as part of a large development project; managed tax incentives place job quality stipulations as part of tax breaks and incentives offered by economic development actors 58 Osterman, P. (2008) ‘Improving job quality: policies aimed at the demand side of the low wage labor market’ in A Future of Good Jobs? : America’s Challenge in the Global Economy, Bartik, T. and Houseman, S. (eds). Upjohn Institute, pp. 203-244 http://research. upjohn. org/up_bookchapters/10 57 16 The Skills Dilemma 4.An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality This section summarises the main findings of the expert interviews conducted between July and October 2011 in order to identify the main drivers of skills under-utilisation and the barriers to improving skills utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality. 4. 1 Sector profile Retail The retail sector is the UK’s largest source of private sector employment, and despite the damaging impact of the economic downturn (resulting in over 6,000 insolvencies59) employs approximately 2. 8 million people (over 10 per cent of the UK’s workforce).It includes retail sales in:60 Example Non-specialised stores Specialised stores Pharmaceutical goods New goods in specialised stores Second-hand goods Not in store Supermarkets and department stores Butchers, greengrocers, fishmongers and tobacconists Chemists and pharmacies Stores selling textiles, clothing, books, electrical household appliances, furniture and lighting Charity shops and eBay Catalogue and mail order sales, online and via stalls and markets The retail sector is diverse; approximately two-thirds of people employed within the sector work in ‘large retailers’; however 99 per cent of retailers employ less than 50 people (accounting for 28 per cent of employment). 61 It is also highly polarised; knowledge intensive work is concentrated in head offices and head quarters, and less knowledge intensive work is concentrated on the shop floor. Figure 3 below shows the occupational breakdown of the sector.Almost 20 per cent of retail workers are employed in managerial positions (higher than the national average), but 50 per cent are employed in sales and customer service occupations and 14 per cent in elementary level jobs. ‘Softer’ customer facing skills are therefore in higher demand in the retail sector. Low pay is also prevalent; the median hourly wage in the sector is ? 6. 94, which compares to ? 10. 97 for all employees in the UK. 62 Previous research has suggested that the whole sale and retail industries tend to have some of the highest levels of skills under-utilisation, with 43 per cent of employees reporting being ‘over-skilled’ and http://www. bis. gov. k/policies/business-sectors/retail Skillsmart retail (2010) 61 UK Business Activity Size and Location (2010) 59 60 62 Earnings, Office for National Statistics The Skills Dilemma Defined as SIC 47; Retail trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles. Annual Survey of Hours and 17 An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality Figure 3: Employment by occupation in the retail sector and the whole economy 60. 0% 50. 0% 40. 0% 30. 0% 20. 0% 10. 0% 0. 0% ns ns ns cr et ar ia at ion s ca l er at iv e f ic ial at io at io Te ch ni at io Employment by occupation in retail and the whole economy All economy Retail sO cc up cu p cu p Oc m en ta ry Ele at io ns l s s Op neOf oc cu p an d ni na l an d ice Se Tr ad e ice m er S er v Pr oc es s, P lan ist ra tiv e es sio M an ag er s es sio ille d Pe rs on al Pr of ro f in Sk As so cia t Source: Labour Force Survey Q4, 2010: Retail defined as SIC 47 (Retail trade, except vehicles) 52 per cent over-qualified’. 63 This level of under-utilisation is above that observed in other sectors of the economy, with the exception of hotels and catering. It is also important to note – based on the occupational structure of the retail sector – that 45 per of sales workers reported being ‘over-skilled’ and 57 per cent ‘over-qualified’ (the highest level amongst all occupations).Furthermore, research published by The Work Foundation64 in 2009 found that 55 per cent of ‘servers and sellers’ were ‘over-skilled’ for their job. However, some interviewees felt that skills underutilisation was a ‘major problem’ which extended ‘all the way up the line’ to management roles. There was also a perceived lack of s kills development and training in the retail sector. One possible explanation for the reported levels of skills under-utilisation is the flexible nature of retail work; 56 per cent of retail employees work part-time (twice the UK average), and the mean hours worked in the sector is 27. 4 compared to the UK mean of 32. 5 hours. 5 The part-time and local nature of retail work can be attractive to some people, who require a particular work-life balance (individuals with care responsibilities or students for example). Indeed, a disproportionate amount of store workers are women and young people, especially in supermarkets. One third of employees in the retail sector are under 24 These are self-assessed incidences of under-utilisation which draw on the 2001 Skills Survey – see Green, F. and McIntosh, S. (2002) Is there a genuine underutilisation of skills amongst the over-qualified? SKOPE Research Paper No. 30 2002 64 Brinkley, I. , Fauth, R. , Mahdon, M. and Theodoropoulou, S. (2 009) Knowledge Workers and Knowledge Work 65 Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (2009) 63 18 Sa le sa nd Cu st oAd m eP ta nd M ac hi na l Se rv an d Oc cu p or Se Oc The Skills Dilemma An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality years of age (compared to 13 per cent in the economy as a whole)66 and 61 per cent female, compared to 49 per cent in the economy as a whole. 67 Not all interviewees perceived skills under-utilisation to be a major concern for the retail sector; some considered the (inadequate) supply of skills to be a bigger challenge for employers. The sector employs a large proportion of people with low-level qualifications; for example 31 per cent of sales staff have below level two qualifications. 8 Skillsmart Retail have identified technical and practical skills, customer handling, and management skills to be the main skills gap areas and in need of improvement; interviewees cited the sector’s poor image as a barrier to attracting the right people to address these skills needs. It is also worth noting on the positive side that there has been a greater emphasis on training and skills development in the retail sector in recent years. Although the retail sector accounts for 10 per cent of employment in the private sector it accounts for 12 per cent of training spend. The qualification framework has also been simplified to increase transferability. Hospitality Hospitality is the country’s fifth largest industry and employs more than 2. 4 million people. 9 In the decade prior to the recession, the rate of employment growth in hospitality outstripped employment growth in the wider economy; it has also been recently predicted that the sector has the potential to generate relatively strong employment gains over the next decade. 70 The industry includes the following types of employers: Contract food service providers Events Gambling Holiday parks Hospitality services Hostels Hotels Membe rship clubs Pubs, bars and nightclubs Restaurants Self catering accommodation Tourist services Travel services Visitor attractions Source: People 1st The hospitality sector is both broad and diverse; it is widely geographically distributed and makes an important contribution to employment in all regions. Firm sizes vary from a neighbourhood chip shop Skillsmart Retail Skillsmart Retail 68 Skillsmart Retail 69 British Hospitality Association (http://www. bha. org. k/policy/) 70 See Oxford Economics (2010) Economic contribution of the UK hospitality industry (http://www. baha-uk. org/ OxfordEconomics. pdf) 66 67 The Skills Dilemma 19 An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality through to large multinational food service and hotel chains. In general the workforce in the hospitality sector tends to be concentrated in less skilled and lower-wage roles. The median hourly wage in the sector is ? 6. 20, compared to a national average of ? 10. 97. 71 Figure 4 presents the occupational distribution of employees in the hospitality sector compared to the economy as a whole.The most striking feature of the graph is the number of hospitality employees working in elementary jobs (the least skilled job types), with half of all hospitality employees in these posts compared to just 11 per cent in the economy as a whole. 72 Figure 4: Employment by occupation in hospitality and the whole economy 60. 0% 50. 0% 40. 0% 30. 0% All economy Hospitality 20. 0% 10. 0% 0. 0% ? cia ls re ta ria l s s tio ns Te ch er ati ati ati ati cc up cc up Se c cu p rO pa Oc cu cc u El em en t ar yO pa tio ns on ni on on ve s M ac hi ce ss ,P lan ta nd Pr o ne Op ca l s io lO nd es O Se n an la d e Oc of es sio na er vic io ag er sa ra ti Tr lS ille d rs on a Pr of ist Pr in Sk an Ad m Pe so cia Source: Labour Force Survey Q4, 2010: Hospitality defined as SIC 55 and 56 (Accommodation and Food and Beverage Service Activities)Previous research has sugge sted that the hotels and catering industries tend to have some of the highest levels of skills under-utilisation, with 56 per cent of employees reporting being ‘over-skilled’ and 50 per Figures refer to gross hourly earnings excluding overtime in 2009 from the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings. Hospitality is defined as accommodation and food service activities 72 Elementary jobs are defined by the Office for National Statistics as jobs ‘which require the knowledge and experience necessary to perform mostly routine tasks, often involving the use of simple hand-held tools and, in some cases, requiring a degree of physical effort’ 71 20 Sa le sa As nd Cu s M te to m er S es s er vic na nd ve ad e The Skills DilemmaAn analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality cent over-qualified’. 73 This under-utilisation is significantly above that observed in other sectors of the economy. One common characteristic across the sector is that there tends to be relatively low barriers to entry in terms of qualifications required for many posts. In the absence of qualification requirements, hospitality sector employees are often recruited on the basis of their attitude rather than skills sets. The low accreditation needs mean that for some individuals the sector can offer reasonable prospects for progression, either internally or by moving between employers.The sector also has a large number of back of house roles so some skills, in particular language ones, are not as much of a barrier to employment as they can be in other sectors. Interviewees pointed towards the high levels of employee turnover in the sector as being an important feature and one that has significant implications for skills use and skills development. More generally it was also felt by some expert interviewees that there was a group of workers in the hospitality industry who are paid less for using comparable skills than they wo uld make for using similar skill sets in other sectors. In part this relates to the fact that profitability of employers in the sector is often very low.Interviewees reported that this was also in large part driven by the fact the sector has historically employed more marginal workers – including students and migrants – who are less likely to have a voice with employers. When considering skills in the sector it should be noted that there are some issues around conceptualising skills, and this creates some difficulty in judging the extent of under-utilisation. The skills used, and in demand, in the sector are largely soft skills such as inter-personal skills and flexibility, rather than formal qualifications. A focus on utilisation of technical skills would therefore provide one measure of skills utilisation, but looking at the use of wider skills, particularly soft skills, would give a different one. This also raises questions about the way skills are valued and reward ed both in the sector and beyond.In practical terms organisations may or may not acknowledge soft skills (in appraisals, progression or pay) – where they don’t there are clearly questions around whether the organisation knows what skills are and how to value them. Some interviewees suggested that one of the issues around the poor deployment and utilisation of skills in the sector was the result of the sector suffering from a relatively weak quality of management. It was noted by interviewees that HR practice in the sector could be poor, and in common with other sectors smaller employers often have no specialist HR function. However, while under-utilisation was felt to be more prevalent in smaller businesses and those in more peripheral areas, interviewees identified a number of examples of good practice in larger employers.Furthermore, as described previously, the hospitality sector tends to have a relatively high level of staff turnover so in some cases skills under-u tilisation can be a short-term issue for an employee. Several 73 These are self-assessed incidences of under-utilisation which draw on the 2001 Skills Survey – see Green, F. and McIntosh, S. (2002) Is there a genuine underutilisation of skills amongst the over-qualified? SKOPE Research Paper No. 30 2002 The Skills Dilemma 21 An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality interviewees pointed to the large numbers of migrant workers who use the sector as an initial stepping stone into other sectors for whom again under-utilisation might be a short lived problem. 4. The drivers of skills under-utilisation in low-wage sectors Section 3 highlighted some of the wider drivers which serve to make things challenging for low-wage workers in the UK, such as the poor conception of work in low-wage sectors, corporate strategies based on cost competition, and forms of work organisation based on Taylorist forms of job design which give worker s little task autonomy, discretion or flexibility. These themes were highlighted in the expert interviews, but interviewees also identified a set of drivers that were more specific to the retail and hospitality sectors. Retail Retailers are often highly cost competitive. The economic climate was cited as an immediate concern for employers, with ‘store survival’ often the biggest priority in the short to medium-term.In an attempt to keep costs as low as possible, interviewees identified the centrally driven de-skilling of work as a common corporate strategy pursued by employers – the de-skilling of lower level occupational store work and instore managerial jobs through increasing central office control to increase efficiencies. These models of central management encode a ‘one best way’ approach. The corollary is that (unlike in Scandinavian countries such as Finland) there is no real capacity for process innovation from employees and product knowledge is declining on the shop floor. The increasing usage of technology and ICT has also reduced employee discretion.Furthermore, this type of work organisation has resulted in a highly polarised workforce – with the decline of ‘intermediate level jobs’ also reducing career progression opportunities. Secondly, given the prevalence of low-skill flexible work the retail sector also traditionally exhibits a relatively high turnover of staff. Before 2006 the turnover rate was above 30 per cent. Although research conducted by the CIPD in 2009 found that the annual staff turnover had fallen to 17 per cent in the retail and wholesale sector. 74 In this type of environment employers may consider skills development and strategies to improve skills utilisation to be counter productive. A third important driver of skills under-utilisation in the retail sector is employee demand for flexible working arrangements.The previous sub section has presented evidence of the high proport ion of women and young people in the retail sector who prefer or require the work-life balance offered by retail work in comparison to other sectors. It may be that there is relatively little demand for job re-design and greater skills utilisation amongst this group. Often in these cases individuals have acquired greater skills than those required for the job, but make a conscious decision to accept less skilled work. 74 CIPD (2009) Recruitment, Retention and Turnover. Annual survey report The Skills Dilemma 22 An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitalityMore generally interviewees often felt that there were issues around the quality and completion rate of apprenticeships in the sector; with apprenticeships too often not providing apprentices with a broader skills base around retail skills. Hospitality Interviewees identified a number of central drivers of skills under-utilisation in the sector – these related to business mod els and task design, the sector’s high staff turnover, and poor management understanding of the skills needed. They also flagged-up the broader issue of pay levels. The business strategies adopted by many employers in the sector were felt by some interviewees to be largely driving the under-utilisation of skills. Many employers operate with low-profit margins and compete primarily on cost rather than quality.In this explanation, skills under-utilisation is driven by the low-pay culture, perceptions of competition, and long-term tacit acceptance of low profit margins and the consumer demand for low prices. Low-value business models were felt to generate more jobs characterised by basic tasks. Issues around the understanding of skills, and the relatively high turnover of employees in the sector were also felt to be important elements in explaining skills under-utilisation. It was reported by interviewees that there was often an ‘incomplete understanding’ among empl oyers of what skills are required to deliver services effectively; with some businesses being ‘fairly woolly’ about how to match specific skills to a jobs requirements, and employers tending to simply take on whoever is willing to do the job.The high rate of staff turnover was also felt to limit the extent to which employers would explore skills use or development with employees. For employers this stance may seem quite rational – why train someone who is going to leave anyway? However it is also the case that greater attention to skills deployment and usage may in turn help to reduce high turnover. As was the case in the retail sector interviews, a third driver was related to employee choice and lifestyle decisions rather than employer behaviour. This is important in two senses. First the sector offers a range of hours and working arrangements and this can make it attractive for people who need a job which fits around other commitments.Secondly, people can trade down in employment terms, but this allows them to live in a location of their choice because hospitality work is so widespread. Box 2: Summary findings: Drivers of skills under-utilisation in low-wage sectors †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Corporate strategies; business models competing on cost rather than quality; Forms of work organisation and management techniques adopted by low-wage employers; Poor conception of work; Poor management and understanding of skills needs; High turnover of staff; Employee demand for flexible working/ work-life balance. 23 The Skills Dilemma An analysis of skills under-utilisation in two low-wage sectors – retail and hospitality 4. What are the barriers to better skills utilisation in low-wage sectors? As well as identifying the main drivers of skills under-utilisation, interviewees also highlighted a set of barriers to improving skills utilisation in low wage sectors. †¢ Employers may simply be unaware of the practical b enefits of better skills utilisation (to themselves, their employees and the wider economy), see skills utilisation as irrelevant to them, and/or see job design as a cost (in terms of training or higher wages). Interviewees generally agreed that the skills utilisation agenda must be employer-led; providing employers with the evidence of the practical benefits is therefore a priority. †¢Secondly, skills utilisation ‘is interdependent on the wider economic development policy being pursued by a nation’;75 the lack of intermediate level economic development and business support agencies (one example cited was the abolition of the Regional Development Agencies) was identified as a barrier to operationalising this agenda in England. †¢ Lastly, due to the prevalence of part-time work, unionisation rates are low, and interviewees highlighted that employees have limited representation in skills policy – with the lack of employee voice making securing positive ch anges to work expe

Definition of Cheating

DEFINITION of CHEATING Have you ever forgotten to study for a test but still gotten an â€Å"A†? Have you ever been in last place but still ended up winning the game? Have you ever been romantically involved with more than one person at the same time? If you have answered â€Å"yes† to any of the following questions, you might be a cheater! Cheating is a word that is all too familiar to most people in the world. Many try to find justification for their actions but, in reality, there is no just way to cheat.Cheating is a dishonest, immoral, and dishonorable action that puts yourself at an unfair advantage over your peers or opponents, or earns you something that you do not deserve, by breaking a rule, whether it be a moral rule, or actual written rules of an organization. Even though most people would be reluctant to admit it, cheating is a very common occurrence and there are probably more people that have cheated at one point or another, than have not. Whether in sport s, school, or even in a relationship, cheating is cheating and there is never a right way to do it!Competition runs deep in the veins of a lot of people. For many, a win is a win, no matter what the game, or what means were taken. I am sorry to inform you but, those people are part of the definition of a cheater. We would like to think that our sports are always fair and judged objectively, and a pound for pound battle to the end. That is not always the case. Too often, a team is favored by a referee or a match will be thrown for an amount of money or some other â€Å"under the table† bribe.To me, this takes the magic out of the game. When you find out a boxing match was fixed, what is the fun in getting involved and cheering for a side? The point of watching a competition is to watch two evenly matched opponents, or teams, duke it out until the end of the game and one is declared the winner. When you consider things like steroids, it seems so common that it is almost accepte d, and even expected, but it is still an unfair advantage.Over the decades, sports have become more demanding on the athlete and the competition seems more intense than ever before, but I believe the beauty of a sport is the honesty and heart of the game. Why practice if the outcome is fixed? Why spend months in training if a team is going to be paid off? For some competitors, losing is the worst thing and would rather have a victory they did not earn, and actually stole from the opponent by giving themselves an advantage over the other team. But this is cheating, and it is a dishonest, immoral, unjust way of â€Å"coming out on top†.Another very different, but equally repulsive way of cheating is cheating in a relationship. There may not be written guidelines and rules to being in a relationship, but they are still there. Everyone should have a conscience and be able to take another’s feelings into consideration enough to treat them with the respect that any person de serves, especially a person with which you are romantically involved. However, there are those people out there who just can’t say no to a tempting offer.They like to experience â€Å"the best of both worlds†, as Hannah Montana would say, but this is no way to treat a human being. If you make a conscious decision to intentionally violate the moral code of a relationship and have more than one person of romantic interest, even though the rules may be unspoken and it is more of a ‘treat your partner how you would expect or want to be treated’ thing, then that makes you a cheater. (And a despicable person, but that is just my opinion. ) A relationship is a caring bond based on mutual interests and respect.When you sneak around and have a secret fling on the side, sooner or later, the truth will come out and it could cause extreme emotional pain to the person who has been cheated on. It is a selfish and inconsiderate choice, but it is one made intentionally, f or personal gain, and is not as uncommon as we might like it to be. Finally, probably the most common form of cheating, in my opinion, is cheating in school. Getting good grades requires hard work and is a very rewarding thing when it is earned. However, there are those people out there who receive the credit without doing the work.Some students like to take the easy way out and cheat. They either copy answers from a friend, with or without them knowing, or find some other way to get around studying and still make good grades. Again, this is an immoral and selfish choice since the cheater has put no work in but has received credit. Some students cheat because they are just lazy; however, there are several kids out there who will go to great lengths to come up with some very sneaky, subtle way of copying down answers and hiding them.They put more work into cheating than it would take to actually study, which makes no sense except to assume that cheating is something they enjoy. It is like the students want to feel like they have â€Å"one-upped† the teacher, so to say, by getting an â€Å"A† without putting in work, like they have outsmarted them or something. But, in the end, the joke is on the cheater. Teachers have a point for teaching and when the student doesn’t study and learn the subject, it will just be harder on them in the long run.Hard work is exactly what it sounds like, but if you do the work, it always pays off. The alternative never does. Cheating comes in many different forms and for many different reasons; however none of those reasons are justifiable, nor will cheating ever benefit you in any way. Cheating is a form of lying: it involves being dishonest with others, it will always catch up with you, and never will it have a positive effect on you or those around you. Life is unfair as it is, and when you throw cheaters in the mix, what chance does an honest person have these days?

Debate Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Debate Paper - Essay Example The certificate must bear the signature of a sole incorporator, whose main objective is to establish the corporation. The Articles generally specify the name of the business, the chosen capital stock structure, the objective of the corporation, and the formal location of the headquarters and agent(s) of the corporation. After all that, the sole incorporator should formalize the appointment of the initial company directors by signing a consent document. Corporations such as Food Mart Stores are normally established to advance the business interests of the shareholders and cushion them against any liability. As such Smith owes a duty to the company’s stakeholders: the investors, directors, employees, and Stone Hill customers. Nonetheless, he is confronted with a delicate situation that could see the company make more profits by opening a bigger store farther away for the neighborhood at the expense of the locals. Different ethical theories manifest in this case study with regard to the impending decision on whether or not to close the store. Firstly, utilitarian ethical principle focuses on implementing ethical decisions that would maximize the good or value within the society while ensuring that the end result harms as few individuals as possible (Shaw, 2010). In this case, two issues prop up in the analysis of the best utilitarian action that Smith should take: on the one hand, the geriatrics who cannot carry heavy loads over long distances on foot make up about 10 percent of the population. Moreover, the average income of the lower-end segment in the neighborhood population depending on the Food Mart Store is $15,000, a figure that is lower than that of the city residents. On the other hand, Food Mart Stores and Smith face a gloom future if no action is taken to expand the store for stocking of a wide range of goods. With a gross income of a paltry 2%, the corporation’s operations could grind to a halt if it heeded the cry of the local population advocating for the retaining of the status quo, or worse still, engage in a costly renovation exercise whose returns on investment would be too little to imagine. Moreover, the future of Smith at the helm of the company hangs on the balance as the level of profits generated by the corporation continues to decline. Having done adequate research on the positive prospects of opening a larger store stocked with a variety of goods, it is ethical of Smith to press for the closure of the two smaller stores in order to pave way for the establishment of a bigger one that would guarantee all the stakeholders better outcomes. In essence, the new store will provide low prices on goods for patrons; and ensure higher profitability and continued existence to the benefit of all the stakeholders. A utilitarian-driven action by Smith would definitely cause suffering to the old residents of Stone Hill, however their suffering would be insignificant because they are a paltry10 percent of the populatio n. The poorer residents have reasonable incomes (of $15,000) which would enable them to adjust if a new store was established a few miles away from the neighborhood. Secondly, a rights ethical principle comes to fore in this dilemma. It is premised upon the notion that all stakeholders in a company have rights which

Succinyl CoA Synthase and Regulation of the Enzyme Essay - 8

Succinyl CoA Synthase and Regulation of the Enzyme - Essay Example The amino acid responsible for activity is the phosphorylated histidine intermediate (HIS 246 alpha) which is the residue responsible for dephosphorylation of ATP and another site is suspected to be present in the beta subunit that ensures continued metabolism. It is also suspected that there is a nucleotide binding site at the N-terminal of beta subunit (Harel, 2014). This suggests that there are two active sites which are situated approximately 35A apart and that the HIS 246 alpha loop usually moves between them while catalysis is occurring. There is also GLU 208 alpha on the alpha subunit which interacts with the active HIS 246 residue in both the phosphorylated and dephosphorylated enzyme (Harel, 2014) As indicated above the histidine residue is the one involved in dephosphorylation or phosphorylation of ATP or ADP respectively. It has been proposed that the process involves a cooperative binding catalysis. Thus binding of ATP at one site enhances catalysis at another catalytic site (Schà ¼rmann et al, 2011). Binding of ATP occurs only in the presence of magnesium ion (Mg++) forming a complex which contains two ATP residue plus 2 phosphoric acid residues. If incubation is done this complex is converted to another one with 4 phosphoric acid residues per given protein. The complex with 4 phosphoric acid residues is the only one with the capability to react with succinate and CoA to give Succinyl CoA complex (Harel, 2014). This complex then releases phosphoric residues as many as bound succinate. The transfer of this phosphoric residue from the first active site correlates with the transfer to the second active site supporting the cooperative binding mechanism. These, therefore, mea ns that both ADP and ATP can both be activating or inhibiting depending on which stage of catalysis they bind to the enzyme(Harel, 2014). These, therefore, support the reversibility of the catalysis. After the phosphorylation of the Succinyl-CoA and  subsequent dephosphorylation, it is released and continues along the Krebs cycle as succinate.

Functions of Management are Evolving in Todays Business Environment Research Paper

Functions of Management are Evolving in Todays Business Environment - Research Paper Example The contemporary managers are anticipated to take lead in the development of sound business solutions, as well as the eventual development of the considered business working policies. This has been weighed against the performance policies adopted by the firm. Contemporary managers have proceeded to create an atmosphere for idea brainstorming as well as the pooling of knowledge. This attribute has been used to steer the firm towards its considered path of success. This is unlike the policies adopted by the traditional managers who were deemed as the source of the policies with the staff being anticipated to proceed with the enactment policies. The role of managers in the shaping of the ethics has been mapped along both the implementation and the oversight. The managers have been anticipated to presume the lead in the development of the respective ethics policies, as well as their implementation. The managers take the initiative of implementation the ethics policies. This allows the rest of the staff an opportunity to be considered on the benefits of the respective policies, as well as considering the contribution they stand to offer towards the bettering of the workplace. The managers allow for the development of this reflection. Additionally, the concept of illustrating the guide for the rest of the employees remain best described via the actions of the managers. The Managers allow for the reflection of the model that is anticipated to be expressed in character reflection. Additionally, the managers are anticipated to be keen on ensuring that the rest of the staff remain committed to the ethics policy adopted by the firm. This is with respect to the prospective role they presume in the guiding of the considered staff. The managers are tasked with the promotion of the adopted habits in the workplace. Ethics comprise of such habits and govern the behavior of the respective employees. The staffs operate under the guidance of the managers, hence their contribution to the shaping of the behaviors of these persons.

Intermediate Macroeconomics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Intermediate Macroeconomics - Research Paper Example The core theme of the project revolves round economic and monetary policies that are significantly influenced by the change in global oil prices. In this regard, it is observed that with change in global oil price, the import and export of the same gets highly influenced. The study leads to the comprehensive understanding regarding the development of the nation, hence, it makes interesting to the readers. However, in the essay a general introduction to the topic is provided at the initial phase of the study, which is followed by a study of the trend of oil price in the international market over the past few years. The variables that are prominently used for the purpose of the study are the leading producers and consumers of crude oil in the world. Moreover, an overview of the trend in the import and export of crude oil is also depicted in the study. In lieu of the determined objective, a critical quantitative analysis will be performed with regards to the impact of price change of cr ude oil on buying and selling economies in the international market, with due consideration to the statistical positions of Saudi Arabia, the US and Australia in terms of buying and selling crude oil. The quantitative analysis tools that are used in the study comprise correlation, mean and median. In this regard, the correlation among the oil price change over the years and the variable of the net export and import is considered. The time period for the same is considered from 2009 to 2013. Furthermore, these data are collected from some of the trusted sources like the Macro Trends, Infomine, Australian Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Energy, and many more and hence, the result is highly reliable. It is expected that the approach taken would bring into a holistic assessment of the topic, with the comparison of data obtained about different countries. Ultimately, a conclusion will be

Intervention plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Intervention plan - Essay Example Apparently, her painful memories of such a traumatic experience were triggered when she and her workmates visited a friend’s farm in the country. While in the farm, she had flashes of her painful childhood memories which she thought she has forgotten over the years. However, the sights, smells, sounds, etc. of the farm only made the flashbacks more vivid. Sherry was only four years old when her grandfather began sexually molesting her in his barn. He did this to her until she was nine years old when she and her family had to move to another city due to her father’s employment. Sherry used to adore her grandfather because he brought her on trips around the country side and had ready treats for her every time she and her parents came to visit him and her grandmother. It is in the barn when he would sexually abuse her in the guise of pretend play. Sherry did not enjoy that kind of play at all and felt uncomfortable with her grandfather’s touch. Even if she was already toilet trained, she would sometimes soil her underwear in the hope that her grandfather will not rape her. Although he told her that it was their secret and she was not supposed to tell anyone, she tried to tell her mother when she was five years old, and in response, she was spanked, in the belief that she was lying. She never told anyone again. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory (1969) is one theory that explains the development of attachment of children to their significant others. It posits that a person’s real relationships in the earliest stages of life shape his or her survival functions as he or she grows and develops throughout the life span. To Sherry, her attachment relationships to both her grandfather and mother may have been shattered by her disappointment in them. Ringel (2012) contends that children like Sherry develop disorganized attachments alternating between ambivalent and avoidant behaviors as well as dissociative behaviors like

Assignment2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Assignment2 - Essay Example It notes various legal backgrounds that recognize the link between culture and natural resources, in addition to citing the role they can play in managing the river as well as the impacts it may have on their lifestyle. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Introduction 4 Discussion 5 Background 5 Ownership concepts surrounding the Waikato river saga 5 Maori’s right to resources 9 Conclusion 10 Introduction The Maori community feels their interest is not catered for in the deal involving Waikato River which they feel they have ownership and guardianship rights to, based on the Treaty of Waitangi claims. This claim has been elicited by the signing of deal between the Crown and Waikato-Tanui. This paper therefore explores the case of struggles surrounding of the Waikato River which lies at the center of tribal identity and the troubles surrounding its ownership and guardianship rights. Through analysis of the competing discourses, the emerging tensions and interpretation issues are discu ssed in depth and on their basis, a conclusion derived. Waikato River is known as being the longest River in New Zealand. It is believed to officially start at Nukuhau close to Taupo Township and through its course it is served by various streams and smaller tributaries (Mataira, 1983). The river runs in the North West direction and goes via several forests and rural settings. Based on the activities surrounding the places it passes, it is currently affected fertilizers originating from farmlands, wastewater from industries and urban settings including those from the turbines at the electro power stations. In general, Waikato River is a vital resource to the communities and organizations surrounding and hence its usage impacts on a broad population. Logically, any issues affecting it must therefore be subject to reaction from those affected. Discussion Background The ownership concept in relation to Waikato River is one which brings together people from different backgrounds and que stions their understanding of both leadership and authority in context of natural resources found within their localities. The level of emotions elicited in the quest to claim of ownership of the river cannot be best described than by the words of ‘Iwi,’ the principal negotiator for Waitangi Treaty who asserted that, â€Å"We don’t need a bloody court document to tell us we own the river, we know we do (Field notes, 2000).† It’s one that no doubt puts to battle, beliefs of a society and the Crown. This is what might be termed as a populist statement in the face of crisis. Nonetheless, it does eliminate the possibility of the communities claim for ownership being true. The concept of ownership as expressed by tribal leaders basically centered on the interests of the community. Ownership concepts surrounding the Waikato river saga Virtually each and every society has its concepts which are considered kin to the western ownership theory. Nonetheless, w hat one culture considers ownership is not the same as what another culture would consider as ownership. In essence, ownership concept differs from one sphere to another. According to Stokes (1994) the ownership of Waikato River within context of land claim by the locals was not a claim for exclusive right of ownership of the River but rather they primarily wanted to participate to the river’s management, within precincts of the Maori values. This view is entrenched in the words of

Femininity within and outside Greek System Term Paper

Femininity within and outside Greek System - Term Paper Example The way of living and even the surroundings did not provide much scope for people to improve. Women in Greece were not given much freedom. They were allowed to talk only with female. Their main work was to take care of their home and children. Women did not have much influence and were not considered in any decision making process. Women did not have a major role to play, as men dominated them. (Paulos 2008). They had to depend on their husband. In ancient times there were statues of goddess which were sculptured keeping Greek women in mind. Since it was a male-dominated system, women were considered powerless. Later in the 19th century, consciousness about feminism came into existence. Greek women were good at singing and dancing and they composed many songs. They were not allowed to pursue their education. The school system did not allow girls to get admission. They were considered fit only for domestic affairs. Women were used in demotic songs in rural areas as they were not strong economically. During marriage their opinion was not important. The girl's father will decide a man and they will get married. Dowry played a vital part in those marriages. (Martin 1996). For a woman to divorce her husband, she had to go through a lot of legal procedures which were not as easy as compared to that of a man divorcing his wife. In ancient Greece, most divorces were by the husband. In such cases, the man would directly reject his wife in front of everyone and just drive her out of his home. Status of Women Once divorced, the woman can get back her dowry that was given to her husband .But the worst part was the practice of retaining the children with the father itself. Thus no rights can be claimed by a lovable mother on her children. Such simple was the procedure for a man to divorce a woman. Whereas if a woman likes to get divorced, she has to go in search of a legal support to enlist the grounds on which she would want to get divorced. This can easily be stopped by the male community by making the woman to sit at home confined to four walls. There was an option in ancient Greek system which permitted the marriage to be called off if the woman had no children. In that situation, the marriage can be broken up which would give way for the female community to get married to some other person. Ancient practices In ancient times religion was the driving force which kept the Greeks to move forward in the march towards development. They practiced idol worship and hence they strongly believed that humans were none other than the incarnation of God in various other forms. Thus they possessed the right to be bestowed with everlasting charm and supernatural powers. As time progressed, there was a change in the nature and character of the god whom the ancient Greeks worshipped. They replicated the gods by themselves or by using the traditional methods which enabled them to communicate people. The ancient practices were such that when a woman gets married to a person, all of her property and assets would be under the control of her husband. Women were not allowed to step out of their house unless and until they had a valid reason. They were under the belief that a woman who had a respect in the society would never appear

Managerial Communications Essay Example for Free

Managerial Communications Essay Hynes introduces a calculated approach to managerial communication by dissecting it into three separate, yet mutually dependent functions. Hynes believes that with these approaches, management and employees alike can learn to adapt to one another to create an effective work force. The first layer is based on the idea that an employer and his employees can create a positive work atmosphere with the communication climate they set with one another. If a manager and his employees have an open and trusting relationship, it makes communications much easier for the both of them, regardless of their status. By allowing employees to contribute their thoughts and opinions without the fear of backlash, managers will see better job performance within their workers. Employers can often create an open communication climate through regular team building meetings and workshops. Communication climate also challenges managers to do their part by listening to their employees’ feedback. In order for effective communication to occur, an employee should feel comfortable in their work atmosphere and fully believe that their manager will take their words into deep consideration. Founder and President of Pillar Consulting LLC , Joelle K. Jay, PhD states, â€Å"On a personal level, people feel acknowledged when others validate their feelings. Managers who ignore feelings can create distance between themselves and their employees, eroding the relationship and ultimately affecting the working environment (Jay, â€Å"Communicate Well: Five Strategies To Enhance Your Managerial Communication Skills†). † From that statement, managers must also learn the boundaries within successful communication. In Hynes’ text, he also states that, â€Å"a positive climate is fragile†¦after only one or two critical errors, a positive environment can quickly change to one of distrust and closed communication, making future communication more difficult† (28). Managers must also learn to face the challenges of workers who become too comfortable in their environment. For example, Manager A and his Employee B, may have a friendly and casual relationship—one in which they may feel so comfortable that they talk about their personal and/or family business with one another. This is good in the sense that Employee B learns to trust Manager A and feels he can chat comfortably about his feelings toward his job. Now, if Employee A begins to feel so comfortable that Manager A is finding consistent errors within Employee B’s work, it is only right for Manager A to step in and confront him about the matter. Depending upon the choice of words used by Manager A and how Employee B feels about the situation, it can change the communication climate. One bad meeting can leave Employee B feeling angry with Manager A. He may no longer wish to have such a friendly demeanor towards him in the future. This can cause a strain on their communication with each other in the future. Another way to open a communication climate is through organizational culture. In an age of such advanced technology, many businesses no longer feel the need to speak to a person directly, either face-to-face or over the phone. The use of email has become a strong tool in business as it allows users to speak to each other without having to schedule a set time for both parties to meet only to say a few words. From the previous example, Manager A may be in a business that is highly dependent on email to speak to his employees in order to give clear, direct orders. Employee B may have previously come from an organization where meeting face-to-face was the ideal way to speak to anyone—management or employees alike. If Manager A decided it would be easier to email Employee B of the mistakes that he’s been making, Employee B may take that as a sign of disrespect. Employee B may not understand the tone that Manager A is reflecting in the email, leaving Employee B with the notion that Manager A couldn’t take time out of his schedule to speak with him directly. Their different perspectives of organizational culture could cause their gap in communication to widen tremendously. Organizational culture can help managers to better understand Hynes’ second layer in his approach to strategic communication. As the sender, Manager A’s personal characteristics can greatly affect the way he communicates with his employees. Before speaking with Employee B about his mistakes, Manager A must first reflect on what he will say to Employee B and how he will say it to him. Efficient communication can be the determining factor for communications in the future. While an employee only has to adjust his communication for his manager, a manager will need to find a way to relay his message to each employee in the most comfortable and appropriate manner they deem fit. The manager must constantly adjust this speech for each person that he meets with to ensure a satisfactory outcome. Though employees must mainly focus on how to communicate with management, there are various factors they must also take into consideration. How an employee takes in what an authority figure is saying to them greatly depends on their closeness with management, how they feel about the subject, concern for the subject, their current mindset, and their differences in position. As a receiver, an employee can choose how to accept a message being given to them by their employer. In the previous example between Manager A and Employee B, it was said that Manager A would have to speak with Employee B about the mistakes he’s been making in his work. Since both parties already have a close relationship, Employee B will be more open to hearing what Manager A has to say. Employee B may have had a bad morning and doesn’t want to talk to anyone, let alone hear what Manager A has to say about his errors. By having a platonic relationship with his employee, Manager A is at an advantage because Employee B will respect him for their friendship. Employee B will be more willing to take Manager A’s words into consideration and change his future actions. Managers must also be mindful of the language they use when speaking with their employees. If they are knowingly using jargon that their employee will not understand, communicating properly will be a difficult task. Not all conversations between employers and employees are ones that criticize their work. Before speaking to their employees, whether in a group setting or a one-on-one conference, a manager must first carefully examine the topic. He must verify that the subject matter would be something that is beneficial to the work force, or something that is unnecessary to building the work morale. In Hynes’ third layer, it is learned that in order to measure how successful a communication approach is, managers must also consider how to get their message across to their employees. As stated before, Manager A may want to email Employee B on the subject of his work. Before doing so, Manager A must fully analyze the words he will be saying to Employee B and recognize if the matter is something that may be better said in person. Also, in Employee B’s organizational culture, he may not be acclimated to receiving the critique of his work in writing. By speaking to Employee B personally, Manager A has the chance to show him that he respects him by meeting him face-to-face. To ensure a message is clearly stated to employees, managers must also take the necessary steps to find a comfortable place and time for them to meet. If the place of employment is one that deals with much noise such as a construction site, managers should take his directed employees to a comfortable place away from many outside distractions. Managers must also consider the amount of time it may take to speak to his workers. On a construction site, more time wasted can also lead to more money wasted. Managers must carefully plan their speech in an amount of time that does not interfere with the actual workload. By using these tactics laid out by Geraldine E. Hynes, managers can begin to set up their own communication strategies to ensure future success. Managers can compare and use these strategies as a baseline to communicating efficiently.